🔆 Key Takeaways:

📍 James Princep:
✅ Deciphered Brahmi and Kharoshti scripts in 1837.

📍 Kautilya’s Arthashastra:
✅ Important ancient Indian text on governance, politics, and economics.

📍 Five Major Political Centres of Magadha Empire:
1. Capital: Pataliputra
2. Provincial Centres: Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali, Suvrangiri
• Suvrangiri: Known for tapping the gold mines of Karnataka.

📍 Magesthenes:
✅ In his Indica Book, he mentioned a committee with 6 sub-committees.

📍 Dhamma Mahamattas:
✅ Term for one who upholds the Dhamma.

📍 Samantas:
✅ Wealthy individuals maintaining control over land.

📍 Allahabad Prashasti:
✅ Composed in Sanskrit by Samudragupta’s court poet Harisen.

📍 Junagadh (Girnar) Rock Inscription:
✅ Mentions about three kings:
• Ashoka
• Rudradaman
• Skandagupta

📍 Gahapati:
✅ Large landowners in Tamil South India, known as Vellalar and Ploughmen as Uzhavar.

📍 Harshacharita:
✅ Biography of Harshavardhana written by Banabhatta.

📍 Agrahara:
✅ A term for Brahmin settlements where land was granted.

📍 Land Granted to Brahmana:
✅ Brahmanas were exempted from land revenue and could collect dues.

📍 Types of Pottery in Ancient History:
✅ Explained in class.

📍 Shrenis:
✅ Merchants’ guilds/associations.

📍 Malabathrum:
✅ Cinnamon, Black Pepper, and Yavana Priya.

📍 Successful Merchants in South India:
✅ Called MASATTWAN in Tamil, SETTHIS, and SATTAVAHAS in Prakrit.

📍 Coins in Ancient India:
✅ Explained in class.

📍 Pattivedaka:
✅ Journalists during Ashoka’s reign who informed the ruler about his empire.

📍 DC Sarkar:
✅ Published “Indian Epigraphy and Indian Epigraphical Glossary”.

🔆 Literary Sources (I hope you remember the difference between Shruti and Smriti)

📍 Evidence
✅ PGW Culture
• Findings: Haryana, Punjab, Western UP - links to Later Vedic settlements.
✅ OCP (Ochre-Coloured Pottery)
• Findings: Found in early Vedic sites.
✅ Copper Hoards
• Findings: Indicate metal tool usage.
✅ Fire Altars
• Findings: Found at Lothal, Kalibangan - linked to Vedic rituals.
✅ Iron Implements
• Findings: Used in agriculture & warfare (Later Vedic Period).

🔆 Ozone Depleting Substances (ODSs)
📍 Definition:
✅ Chlorine, bromine, CFCs, carbon tetrachloride, halons, etc.

📍 Potential Drivers of Ozone Hole over Antarctica:
1. Changes in Antarctic polar vortex
2. Changes in solar cycle
3. Increased atmospheric abundance of Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

📍 Polar Vortex
✅ Stratospheric wind patterns with vast low-pressure areas and very cold air, more pronounced over the South Poles.
✅ Leads to formation of Polar Stratospheric Clouds (PSCs).

📍 Impact of Volcanic Eruptions on Ozone Layer:
✅ Triggers massive stratospheric water vapor plume.
✅ Injects large quantities of sulphur dioxide (facilitates chemical conversion of chlorine making it more reactive).
✅ Contributes atmospheric bromine and hydrogen chloride.
✅ Eruption particles provide surfaces for chemical reactions for ODSs.

📍 PSCs (Polar Stratospheric Clouds):
✅ Also known as nacreous clouds or mother of pearl.
✅ Formed below -78°C and trap outgoing longwave radiation.

📍 Location:
✅ Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha’apai, a submarine volcano in the Tongan archipelago located in the Southern Pacific Ocean, erupted in January 2022.

📍 Ozone Layer Depletion Process (Infographic):
✅ 1st step: UV rays split chlorine atom from CFC molecule.
✅ 2nd step: Chlorine atom breaks up ozone molecule.
✅ 3rd step: The chlorine molecule left behind creates chlorine monoxide and oxygen (O2).

#environment

#Goodmorning

⏳ 14 days only left CSP25 [ 25-05-25]
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⏳29 days left ESE Prelims
⏳30 days Mppsc mains 2025, 9 June
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⏳49 days left UPPSC mains 29 June
⏳77 days UPPSC RO ARO 27 July
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#Target
#TargetOnlyone
#Accountability

🔆 Harappan Sites and Their Significance

📍 Alamgirpur
✅ Location: Uttar Pradesh, India
✅ Significance: Easternmost Harappan site.

📍 Allahdino
✅ Location: Pakistan
✅ Significance: Specialized craft production site.

📍 Amri
✅ Location: Sindh, Pakistan
✅ Significance: Early Harappan phase site, distinct pottery.

📍 Balakot
✅ Location: Pakistan
✅ Significance: Shell bangle production center.

📍 Banawali
✅ Location: Haryana, India
✅ Significance: Defensive fortifications, oval-shaped settlement.

📍 Bhirrana
✅ Location: Haryana, India
✅ Significance: Oldest Harappan site (\~7570 BCE), early settlements.

📍 Chanhudaro
✅ Location: Sindh, Pakistan
✅ Significance: Bead-making factory, no citadel.

📍 Daimabad
✅ Location: Maharashtra, India
✅ Significance: Southernmost Harappan site, bronze artifacts.

📍 Desalpur
✅ Location: Gujarat, India
✅ Significance: Stone fortifications, small settlement.

📍 Dholavira
✅ Location: Gujarat, India
✅ Significance: Water conservation system, three-part city, stone inscriptions.

🔆 Shvetambara School

📍 Key Features:
✅ Follows Parshvanatha’s teachings.
✅ Women can become Tirthankaras.
✅ Monks wear white clothes.
✅ Sacred Texts: Accept Angas.

📍 Comparison with Digambara:

* Clothing:

* Digambara: Sky-clad (nude)
* Shvetambara: White-clad
* Women’s Liberation:

* Digambara: Cannot attain Moksha
* Shvetambara: Can attain Moksha
* Food Collection:

* Digambara: One house only
* Shvetambara: Multiple houses
* Idol Worship:

* Digambara: Unadorned idols
* Shvetambara: Decorated idols

📍 Exponent: Sthulabhadra

Invasive Species Threatening India’s Ecosystems (2024–25) 🌿

1.Lantana camara – Introduced as an ornamental plant, it now invades ~50% of India’s natural areas, disrupting native flora.

2.Parthenium hysterophorus – Known as “famine weed,” it spreads rapidly, causing allergies and harming crops.

3.Prosopis juliflora – Initially planted for firewood, it forms dense thickets, depleting groundwater and outcompeting native species.

4.Eichhornia crassipes (Water Hyacinth) – Clogs waterways, affecting aquatic life and water transport.

5.Cabomba furcata – An aquarium plant turned invasive, it suffocates water bodies, impacting biodiversity.

6.Clarias gariepinus (African Catfish) – Introduced for aquaculture, it preys on native fish, disrupting aquatic ecosystems.

7.Alternanthera philoxeroides (Alligator Weed) – Invades wetlands and agricultural fields, reducing crop yields.

8.Chromolaena odorata – Spreads rapidly in forests, hindering regeneration of native species.

9.Mikania micrantha – A fast-growing vine that smothers crops and native vegetation.

10.Salvinia molesta – Forms dense mats on water surfaces, depleting oxygen and harming aquatic fauna.

Did You Know? Invasive species have invaded 22% of India’s natural habitats and could potentially threaten up to 66% of green areas.

🔆 Karakum Desert

📍 Location & Geography
✅ The Karakum Desert covers much of Turkmenistan.

📍 Key Features
✅ Known for its shifting sand dunes and extreme climate.

🔆 Kyzylkum Desert

📍 Location & Geography
✅ The Kyzylkum Desert spans across Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan.
✅ Lies between the Amu Darya and Syr Darya Rivers.

📍 Natural Resources
✅ Contains large deposits of natural gas.

🔆What is the SCALP Missile?

✅In Operation Sindoor, SCALP missiles were reportedly launched from Indian Rafale jets to strike deep-terror infrastructure in Pakistan and PoK.

✅The SCALP missile, also known by its British name, ‘Storm Shadow’, is a long-range, air-launched cruise missile.
✅It is conventionally armed and used for deep strike missions against high-value, fixed or stationary targets.
✅Its full name, Systeme de Croisiere Autonome a Longue Portee, underscores its role as an autonomous, extended-range strike weapon.
✅It is jointly developed by the United Kingdom and France.
✅It is also in service with the air forces of Egypt, India, Italy, Greece, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates (UAE).

📍Features:

✅It has a range of around 500 km.
✅Weighing 1,300 kg, it carries a 450 kg conventional warhead capable of penetrating hardened bunkers.
✅It is around five metres long and has a wingspan of three metres.
✅Flying at subsonic speeds (around Mach 0.8) and low altitudes, it uses terrain-following navigation, GPS/INS guidance, and infrared terminal homing for high accuracy.
✅These features allow it to fly at low altitudes to evade enemy radar
✅As it approaches its target, the missile’s infrared guidance system compares the target with preloaded images to ensure high accuracy and minimise collateral damage.
✅Designed for stealth and precision, the SCALP is capable of operating in any weather conditions.
✅Launch platform: India integrates SCALP with the Rafale fighter jets, which are currently operated by the Indian Air Force

#gs2
#security
#gs3
#science_technology

Eight National Missions on Climate Change:

✅ National Solar Mission
✅ National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency
✅ National Mission on Sustainable Habitat
✅ National Water Mission
✅ National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Eco-system
✅ National Mission for a Green India
✅ National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture
✅ National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change.

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🔆 MK-III Missile:
✅It is a beyond-visual-range (BVR) air-to-air missile designed to be mounted on fighter aircraft.
✅Still under development by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO), this missile is expected to redefine the landscape of aerial warfare, especially in BVR combat.
✅The missile will be deployed on the Sukhoi Su-30MKI jets and the Light Combat Aircraft Tejas.
✅With the eventual induction of Gandiva, India will possess one of the longest-range BVR air-to-air missiles in the world.
✅This missile is capable of targeting a variety of aerial threats, including enemy fighter jets, bombers, military transport aircraft, refueling planes, and Airborne Warning and Control System (AWACS) aircraft.
Features:
✅It will have a range of 340 kilometers when the target is at an altitude of 20 kilometers, and 190 kilometers when the target is at a lower altitude of 8 kilometers.
✅It is powered by a dual-fuel ducted ramjet engine, enabling it to be launched from an IAF jet at sea level or as high as 20 kilometers in altitude.
✅The missile’s launch speed ranges from 0.8 to 2.2 Mach, with the capability to hit targets at a speed of 2.0 to 3.6 Mach.
✅One of its most advanced features is its ability to engage highly maneuverable fighter aircraft, with an angle of attack of up to 20 degrees.
✅Additionally, the Gandiva has a ±10 km snap-up/snap-down capability, allowing it to engage targets at varying altitudes—either higher or lower than the firing aircraft.

🔆Sarojini Naidu:
✅Sarojini Naidu was born on February 13, 1879 in
She was a renowned Indian poet, freedom fighter and politician.
✅She was famously known as the "Nightingale of India"for her lyrical poetry.
✅She contributed significantly to India's independence movement. 
📍Role in India’s Independence Movement
✅She took part in the Congress session in Bombay in 1904.
✅She made associations with Gokhale, Tagore, Annie Besant, Gandhi and Nehru.
✅She went on to become the first Indian women to preside Indian National Congress in 1925 at its 40th session, Kanpur.
✅Naidu was involved in Non-cooperation movement, Home Rule movement, Salt Satyagraha.
✅In 1917 she headed the All-India Women’s Deputation and championed women’s suffrage before E. S. Montagu (Secretary of State for India).
✅In the same year, she along with Annie Besant and others set up the Women’s India Association.
✅Contribution to Constitution Making: She was appointed to the Constituent Assembly from Bihar. She spoke about the importance of adopting a national flag in the Assembly.
✅Naidu was appointed as the Governor of Uttar Pradesh from 15th August 1947.
✅Key Writings of Sarojini Naidu
The Golden Threshold, Bird of Time, The Broken Wing and The Feather of the Dawn.
✅Additionally, she authored Mahatma Gandhi: His Life, Writings and Speeches and Words of Freedom: Ideas of a Nation.

🔆 Vedanta School

📍 Source
• Originates from the Upanishads (contributed by multiple scholars).

📍 Core Philosophy
• Emphasises: Knowledge, Devotion, and Liberation.

📍 Major Branches
1. Advaita Vedanta (Shankaracharya)
• Brahman alone is real; the world is illusion (maya).
2. Vishishtadvaita (Ramanuja)
• Brahman is real, but has multiplicity.
3. Dvaita (Madhvacharya)
• Dualism: God and souls exist as separate realities.

📍 Path to Salvation
• Liberation through self-knowledge, devotion, and good karma.

Operation SINDOOR: India’s Strategic Clarity and Calculated Force

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