🔆 Chalukyas of Badami (6th–8th Century CE)

📍 Founding & Rise
✅ Pulakesin I (c. 550 CE) founded the Chalukya dynasty and made Badami (Vatapi) his capital.
✅ Assumed the title Vallabheshvara and performed the Ashvamedha sacrifice, asserting sovereignty.
✅ Kirtivarman I (566–597 CE) expanded the kingdom by defeating the Mauryas of Konkan, Nalas of Nalavadi, and Kadambas of Banavasi.

📍 Age of Expansion – Pulakesin II (609–642 CE)
✅ The most illustrious ruler of the dynasty.
✅ Defeated Harsha of Kanauj on the banks of the Narmada, halting northern expansion into the Deccan — detailed in Ravikirti’s Aihole inscription.
✅ Took the title Parameshvara (Supreme Lord).
✅ Conquered the Vishnukundins of Andhra and consolidated power across the peninsula.
✅ Hiuen-Tsang, the Chinese pilgrim, visited his court — describing his empire as well-governed and prosperous.
✅ Maintained diplomatic ties with Khosrau II of Persia, exchanging envoys — a rare instance of early Indo-Iranian diplomacy.
✅ Ultimately defeated and possibly killed by Pallava king Narasimhavarman I (630–668 CE), who captured Vatapi (642 CE).

📍 Decline
✅ Post Pulakesin II, the dynasty weakened due to internal strife.
✅ Around 750 CE, Rashtrakuta ruler Dantidurga overthrew Kirtivarman II, ending the Badami line.

📍 Art & Architecture
✅ Over 150 monuments (450–700 CE) survive in the Malaprabha basin of Karnataka.
✅ Major sites: Aihole, Badami, Pattadakal (UNESCO World Heritage Site).
✅ Architectural features: blend of Nagara (north) and Dravida (south) styles.
✅ Key examples:
• Durga Temple, Aihole (6th c.)
• Ladh Khan Temple, Aihole (5th c.)
• Meguti Temple, Aihole (634 CE)
• Badami Cave Temples (c. 600 CE) – rock-cut shrines for Shaiva, Vaishnava, and Jain faiths.

📍 Administration & Polity
✅ Empire divided into:
• Maharashtrakas (provinces) → Rashtrakas (mandalas) → Vishayas (districts) → Bhogas (ten-village units).
✅ Feudatories like Alupas, Gangas, Banas, and Sendrakas ruled autonomously under Chalukya suzerainty.
✅ Local assemblies managed civic affairs; mahajanas (learned Brahmins) governed agraharas and educational institutions (e.g., 2000 at Badami, 500 at Aihole).

📍 Society & Culture
✅ Caste system prevalent; prostitution legally recognised.
✅ Sati not widely practised — records mention widows like Vinayavathi and Vijayanka.
✅ Women in power:
• Vijayanka, queen and Sanskrit poetess.
• Kumkumadevi, sister of Vijayaditya.
• Lokamahadevi, queen of Vikramaditya II, took part in wars.

📍 Religion
✅ Initially Vedic Hinduism; later strong Shaiva influence (Pashupata, Kapalika, Kalamukha sects).
✅ Jainism actively patronised — Jain cave temples in Aihole and Badami.
✅ Buddhism declined during their rule.

📍 Military & Coinage
✅ Well-organised army: infantry, cavalry, elephant corps, and a navy for western coast defence.
✅ Coins bore Nagari and Kannada legends with motifs like temples, lions, boars, and lotuses.
✅ The gold coin Honnu (~4g) and smaller units Fana, quarter Fana (modern Hana) were in circulation.

💡 Mains Question:
Assess the political and cultural significance of the Badami Chalukyas in shaping early medieval Deccan history.

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#art_and_culture

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CDS RESULT 2 2025

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🔆 Madras HC on Safeguarding Saivite & Vaishnavite Heritage

📍 Context
✅ The Madras High Court upheld the cultural value of Tevaram (Saivism) and Naalayira Divya Prabandham (Vaishnavism), calling them vital for India’s spiritual heritage.
✅ The remarks came while allowing volunteers to perform Uzhavarapani (temple cleaning) under HR & CE supervision.

📍 Key Observations
✅ Recognised the six Hindu cults — Shanmata (Saivam, Vaishnavam, Shaktam, Ganapatyam, Kaumaram, Sauram) — founded by Adi Shankara, symbolising unity in diversity.
✅ Permitted cleaning of temple premises but restricted interference with sanctum and idols.

📍 Saivite Heritage
✅ Tevaram: 7th–9th century hymns by Sambandar, Appar, and Sundarar praising 276 Paadal Petra Sthalams (217 in Tamil Nadu).
✅ Uzhavarapani: Initiated by Saint Appar, linking temple cleaning to spiritual purification.
✅ Vaippu Sthalams: 249 temples casually mentioned in hymns, including one believed to be in the Gulf.

📍 Vaishnavite Heritage
✅ Divya Desams: 108 sacred Vishnu temples (84 in Tamil Nadu) celebrated in the Naalayira Divya Prabandham — 4,000 Tamil hymns by 12 Alvars, compiled by Nathamuni.

📘 Significance
✅ The judgment reinforces the need to preserve Tamil devotional literature, Bhakti traditions, and volunteer-based temple culture as part of India’s living heritage.

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#art_and_culture

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The Union Public Service Commission (UPSC) has launched a new digital initiative titled ‘My UPSC Interview: From Dream to Reality’ as part of its Centenary Year celebrations (1925–2025).
The portal has been created to document and preserve the personal experiences of officers who appeared for the UPSC Personality Test during their journey to becoming public servants.

🔆 Right to Die Debate under Article 21 – Mains Perspective

📍 Context:
The Right to Die with Dignity debate under Article 21 (Right to Life & Personal Liberty) continues to evolve — balancing individual autonomy, ethics, and state responsibility in end-of-life decisions.

📍 1️⃣ Constitutional & Judicial Basis:
✅ Common Cause v. Union of India (2018) – Recognised Right to Die with Dignity as part of Article 21.
✅ Affirmed autonomy to refuse life-sustaining treatment; legalised passive euthanasia and living wills.
✅ Aruna Shanbaug Case (2011) – Permitted passive euthanasia under strict conditions.

🧾 Law Commission Reports:
• 196th (2006): Procedural clarity for euthanasia.
• 241st (2012): Advocated legalising passive euthanasia.

📍 2️⃣ Living Wills & Implementation:
✅ Living wills allow individuals to predefine end-of-life medical decisions.
✅ Judicial directives ensure safeguards but bureaucratic delays persist.
✅ 2025 Living Will Case – Streamlined medical board approval process.

📍 3️⃣ Ethical and Legal Dimensions:
✅ Balancing autonomy vs. risk of misuse (coercion, consent issues).
✅ NHRC Reports (2020s) – Urged ethical frameworks for euthanasia.
✅ Courts emphasise procedural checks and family/medical oversight.

📍 4️⃣ Mental Health & Euthanasia:
✅ Mental Healthcare Act, 2017 – Recognises mental distress as a medical condition, decriminalising suicide attempts.
✅ Ongoing debate on extending euthanasia to severe psychiatric illnesses (2025 Neurodegenerative Disease Case).

📍 5️⃣ Suicide & Dignity under Article 21:
✅ Gian Kaur v. State of Punjab (1996) – Rejected suicide as a right, but upheld dignity in death.
✅ Mental Healthcare Act (2017) & Law Commission’s 210th Report (2008) – Decriminalised suicide, reinforcing compassion over punishment.

📍 6️⃣ Broader Ethical Concerns:
✅ State duty to protect life vs. individual right to autonomy.
✅ Distinction between active euthanasia (illegal) and passive euthanasia (legalised).
✅ Global precedents: Netherlands, Canada, and Belgium legalise assisted dying under strict supervision.

📍 Way Forward:
🔹 Codify euthanasia and living will provisions via a comprehensive End-of-Life Care Act.
🔹 Strengthen medical ethics boards for transparency and accountability.
🔹 Integrate mental health and palliative care within end-of-life policy frameworks.

📘 Mains Practice Question:
“The Right to Die with Dignity under Article 21 raises profound ethical and legal dilemmas. Discuss how India’s judicial and legislative responses have shaped this debate.”

#GS2 #Ethics #mains

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🔆 Ethanol Blending Milestone
✅ India achieved 20% ethanol blending (E20) in petrol in 2025 — 5 years ahead of target.
✅ Led to major forex savings and rise in farmer incomes.
✅ Supports energy security and National Biofuel Policy (2018) goals.

#GS3 #Energy

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The Nobel prize in Literature 2025 has been awarded to Hungarian author László Krasznahorkai “for his compelling and visionary oeuvre that, in the midst of apocalyptic terror, reaffirms the power of art.”

The Norwegian Nobel Committee has decided to award the 2025 #NobelPeacePrize to Maria Corina Machado for her tireless work promoting democratic rights for the people of Venezuela and for her struggle to achieve a just and peaceful transition from dictatorship to democracy

UPSC CAPF Results

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🔆 Koeppen’s Classification of Climate 🌦️

📍 Overview:
✅ The Koeppen Climate Classification, developed by Vladimir Koeppen, is the most widely used empirical system for classifying the world’s climates.
✅ It is called empirical because it is based on observed data (temperature, rainfall, vegetation) rather than theoretical logic.

📘 Basis of Classification:
🌿 Koeppen identified a close relationship between climate and natural vegetation.
🌡️ He selected specific temperature and precipitation thresholds corresponding to vegetation zones and used them to classify climates.

📍 Major Climatic Groups:
Koeppen recognized five major climate groups —
🔸 A, C, D, E → Humid climates (classified mainly by temperature)
🔸 B → Dry climates (classified mainly by precipitation)

📍 Symbols & Subdivisions:

🌦️ Seasonality of Dryness (small letters):
• f → No dry season
• m → Monsoon climate
• w → Winter dry season
• s → Summer dry season

🌡️ Temperature Severity (small letters):
• a, b, c, d → Indicate progressively cooler climates or shorter summers

🏜️ Subtypes under Dry (B) Climates (capital letters):
• S → Steppe (Semi-arid)
• W → Desert (Arid)

#Geography

🔆 Cistanthe longiscapa (Pata de Guanaco)

✅ Habitat: Native to the Atacama Desert, Chile — one of the driest places on Earth.
✅ Growth Cycle: Annual herb that blooms and completes its life cycle after sporadic rainfall.
✅ Adaptation: Uses Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM) — opens stomata at night to absorb CO₂ and store it as malic acid, conserving water for desert survival.

#Environment

🔆 Polar Silk Road

✅ Initiative by: China
✅ Introduced in: Arctic Policy White Paper (2018)
✅ Route: Arctic sea lanes linking North America, East Asia, and Western Europe — offering shorter, cost-effective transport.
✅ Update: Chinese ship began voyage via Arctic Ocean from Ningbo-Zhoushan, launching the Polar Silk Route.

#IR #Geography

🔆 Kharsawan Massacre (1948): A Forgotten Tribal Uprising

📍 Historical Background:
✅ 1912 – Bengal Presidency partitioned; Bihar & Orissa formed.
✅ 1912 – First demand for a separate tribal state (Jharkhand) raised.
✅ 1930 – Simon Commission acknowledged region’s distinct identity.
✅ 1938 – Adivasi Mahasabha founded by Jaipal Singh Munda to lead tribal cause.

📍 Kharsawan’s Merger Issue:
✅ Post-Independence – Kharsawan & 24 princely states acceded to India, merging with Orissa.
✅ Adivasis opposed merger — sought a separate tribal state, not inclusion in Odisha or Bihar.

📍 The Massacre (1948):
✅ ~50,000 Adivasis gathered at Kharsawan to protest merger.
✅ Police opened fire — resulting in mass killings (estimates: dozens to thousands).
✅ Bodies disposed in wells; injured left untreated.

📍 Significance:
✅ Symbol of Adivasi resistance for self-determination and recognition.
✅ Remembered as a tragic milestone in Jharkhand’s statehood movement.

#history

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