Illustration to the Lanka Kanda of the Ramayana: The Awakening of the Giant Kumbhakarna. Kangra, late 19th century

Main centres of Kangra paintings are Guler, Basohli, Chamba, Nurpur, Bilaspur and Kangra. Collectively known as Pahari painting, covering the style that was patronized by Rajput rulers between the 17th and 19th centuries.

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Q141.Discuss the policy responses to the Great Economic Depression.
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Ramayana in Persian (Nastaliq Script), circa 18th century CE, National Museum, Delhi.

Translations of Indian Epics in Persian started in 1574 CE, when the Mughal Emperor, Akbar started a Maktab Khana or a house of translation works in Fatehpur Sikri. He endorsed the work to a few officials to make translations of the Sanskrit books Rajatarangini, Ramayana and Mahabharata into the Persian language. The first Ramayana in Persian was by Mulla’ Abdul Qadir Badayuni.

The translation in the picture is by an unknown writer and is written in simple Persian.

#painting #literature #medieval #mughal #religion #bhakti #akbar #Ramayana #manuscript

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Q141.
Pointers:
Policy Responses to the Great Economic Depression and Their Significance:
Keynesian Economics:
• Governments adopted the ideas of British economist John Maynard Keynes, emphasizing increased government spending to stimulate demand.
• The New Deal in the United States under President Franklin D. Roosevelt included public works programs, unemployment relief, and regulatory reforms.
Banking and Financial Reforms:
• Banking regulations were introduced to stabilize the financial sector and prevent future collapses.
• Glass-Steagall Act separated commercial and investment banking in the U.S., reducing risky behavior.
Trade Protectionism:
• Countries imposed tariffs and trade barriers to protect domestic industries from foreign competition.
• Smoot-Hawley Tariff in the U.S. increased tariffs on imported goods, triggering retaliation and reducing global trade.
International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank:
• IMF provided financial assistance to stabilize currencies and facilitate trade, while the World Bank funded reconstruction and development projects.
• Bretton Woods Conference established these institutions to prevent future economic crises.
Totalitarian Responses:
• Totalitarian regimes, like Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union, pursued autarky (self-sufficiency) and centralized control over economies.
• Nazi Germany focused on rearmament and public works projects, while the Soviet Union's Five-Year Plans prioritized heavy industry.
Social Unrest and Labor Movements:
• Labor unions and workers' movements demanded better wages and improved working conditions. The sit-down strike at General Motors plants in the U.S. led to improved labor rights and collective bargaining.
Rise of the Welfare State:
• Governments introduced social safety nets, including unemployment benefits, pensions, and healthcare. Sweden's welfare state expansion after WWII provided citizens with comprehensive social services.
Shifting Global Alliances:
• Economic hardships contributed to political realignments and changes in global power dynamics.
• Economic turmoil in Europe facilitated the rise of fascism and communism, reshaping international relations.
Lessons for Future Policy:
• Policymakers learned the importance of international cooperation, prudent financial regulation, and proactive government intervention.
• The global response to the 2008 financial crisis incorporated lessons from the Great Depression.

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Q142. Balfour Declaration is considered to be a significant factor in shaping the course of conflict in West Asia. Discuss.

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Q142.
Pointers:
The Balfour Declaration was a statement issued by the British government in 1917 during World War I. It expressed support for the establishment of a "national home for the Jewish people" in Palestine, then under Ottoman rule. The declaration was named after Arthur Balfour, the British Foreign Secretary at the time.
The Balfour Declaration is considered significant for several reasons:
• Recognition of Jewish National Aspirations: The declaration marked the first time a major world power officially recognized the idea of establishing a Jewish homeland. This was significant as it provided international legitimacy to the Zionist movement, which had sought a Jewish homeland in Palestine.
• Impact on Regional Dynamics: The Balfour Declaration had profound consequences for the Middle East. The British promise of a Jewish homeland conflicted with the interests of the Arab population in the region, who also aspired for self-determination and national sovereignty.
• Contributing to Conflict: The declaration intensified tensions between Jewish immigrants and Arab locals, leading to violent clashes. The Arab population saw the British endorsement of a Jewish homeland as a breach of trust and their national aspirations. This tension laid the groundwork for decades of conflict between Jews and Arabs in the region.
• Mandate Period and Colonial Influence: After World War I, the League of Nations granted Britain a mandate over Palestine. The Balfour Declaration was incorporated into the mandate, shaping British policy in the region. The British administration's perceived favoritism towards Jewish immigration and settlement fueled Arab resentment and furthered the conflict.
• Seed of the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict: The Balfour Declaration's support for a Jewish homeland sowed the seeds for the ongoing Israeli-Palestinian conflict. The struggle for control over the same piece of land by two distinct national groups has been at the heart of this conflict for decades.
• Geopolitical Implications: The declaration's endorsement of a Jewish homeland had repercussions beyond the local conflict. It influenced geopolitical alliances and interests in the Middle East during the 20th century.

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Q143.Discuss how the World War II contributed to the rise of new superpowers and the decline of established colonial powers.

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Q143
Pointers:
Rise of New Superpowers:
• United States Emergence: WWII catapulted the US into a dominant global position due to its industrial might, technological prowess, and relatively unscathed infrastructure.
• Soviet Union's Strength: The Soviet Union's role in defeating Nazi Germany showcased its military prowess, leading to its emergence as a superpower, especially in Eastern Europe.
• Technological Advancements: Both the US and USSR benefited from wartime research, which accelerated scientific progress, particularly in areas like nuclear technology. The Manhattan Project led to the creation of the atomic bomb, giving the US significant leverage.
• Bipolar World: The post-WWII era saw the emergence of a bipolar world, with the US and USSR locked in a Cold War, shaping global politics for decades. Formation of NATO and the Warsaw Pact as military alliances aligned with superpowers.
Decline of Established Colonial Powers
• Economic Exhaustion: WWII left colonial powers economically weakened, straining their ability to maintain vast colonial holdings and investments. The economic strain on Britain after the war hastened the decolonization process.
• Nationalist Movements: The war ignited nationalist sentiments as colonies played significant roles in the conflict, leading to aspirations for self-determination and independence.
• Shift in Global Focus: The war shifted global attention towards combating fascism, diverting resources and energy away from colonial control.
• Colonial Contributions: Colonies contributed resources, labor, and troops during the war, which exposed colonial exploitation and heightened demands for autonomy.
• Superpower Involvement: Both the US and USSR supported decolonization as part of their ideological stances, pressuring colonial powers to reconsider their imperial ambitions.

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Q144. Discuss how the policies of containment and mutually assured destruction (MAD) influenced the decision-making of the superpowers during the Cold War.

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Yamuna by Kshitindranath Majumdar (1891-1975)

When the Nationalism movement was at its peak, the artists of Bengal, under the tutelage of Abanindranath Tagore worked towards the renaissance of Indian art. Tagore felt that European styles and mediums were taking over the Indian idiom and ways of artistic expression; thus inspiration from the East and from within India became the hallmark of the artists of the Bengal School.

One such artist was Kshitindranath Majumdar. Majumdar’s paintings have a lovely amalgamation of the spiritual and the sensual. He was enchanted with the realm of Vaishnavism and a lot of his paintings were based on the themes of Vaishnav Gods, Goddesses and saints.

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https://www.telegraphindia.com/india/archaeological-survey-of-india-to-undertake-3d-laser-scan-of-odishas-lingaraj-temple/cid/1960875

#temple #architecture #monument #preservation #asi #earlymedieval #odisha

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https://theprint.in/opinion/iron-age-in-india-began-over-4000-years-ago-tamil-nadus-mayiladumparai-revises-research/1723138/

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Q144.
Pointers:
Policy of Containment: Containment was a U.S. policy aimed at preventing the spread of communism, particularly by the Soviet Union, through various means including military, economic, and diplomatic actions.
Influence on Decision-Making:
• Truman Doctrine (1947): The United States provided economic and military aid to Greece and Turkey to resist communist influence, marking the formal start of the containment policy.
• Marshall Plan (1948): The U.S. provided significant economic assistance to help Western European countries recover from WWII, fostering stability and reducing the appeal of communism.
• Korean War (1950-1953): U.S. intervention to prevent the spread of communism into South Korea exemplified the application of containment through military means.

Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD): MAD is a deterrence strategy where both sides possess enough nuclear weapons to annihilate each other, creating a situation where neither side would initiate a first strike for fear of devastating retaliation.
Influence on Decision-Making:
• Nuclear Arms Race: The fear of MAD fueled an intense nuclear arms race between the U.S. and USSR, with both sides stockpiling vast quantities of nuclear weapons to ensure their own survival.
• Cuban Missile Crisis (1962): The U.S. and Soviet Union came to the brink of nuclear war during this crisis. The realization of the potential consequences of MAD played a role in the eventual de-escalation of the situation.
• Strategic Stability: The concept of MAD created a delicate balance, preventing either superpower from escalating conflicts to the nuclear level, as the consequences were too catastrophic to contemplate.
Combined Impact:
• Deterrence and Restraint: Both containment and MAD contributed to a sense of caution in the superpowers' decision-making. The fear of escalation and catastrophic consequences led to restraint in their actions.
• Proxy Conflicts: While containment led to proxy conflicts in various parts of the world, the fear of MAD often prevented these conflicts from escalating into direct confrontations between the U.S. and USSR.
• Détente: The policy of containment, coupled with the recognition of the dangers posed by MAD, eventually led to a period of détente in the 1970s, marked by reduced tensions and limited arms control agreements.

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Sir R. G. Bhandarkar (1837-1925) on his death anniversary. He was an iconic historian and social reformer.

R. S. Sharma: "He reconstructed the political history of the Satavahanas of the Deccan and the history of Vaishnavism and other sects. A great social reformer, through his researches he advocated widow marriages and castigated the evils of the caste system and child marriage."

▪️He became a member of the Paramhansa and Prarthana sabha.
▪️In 1885, he established the Maharashtra Girls Education Society (MGE) .
▪️As an educationist, he was elected to the Imperial Legislative Council in 1903 as a non-official member.
▪️He taught at Elphinstone College, Deccan College and retired in 1894 as the Vice Chancellor of Bombay University.

The Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, established in 1917, stands as a living testament to his invaluable work.

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Green Humour by Rohan Chakravarty on bats in Indian monuments, published in TheHindu.


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