Pointers:
Impact of Buddhism on the Socio-Cultural Landscape of India:
Spread of Buddhist Monastic Institutions:
• Buddhist monastic institutions, such as monasteries and viharas, flourished across India.
• They served as centers of learning, where not only religious teachings but also various subjects like medicine, astronomy, and philosophy were taught.
• Nalanda and Vikramashila universities are iconic examples of such centers of learning, attracting scholars from different parts of the world.
Emphasis on Non-Violence (Ahimsa):
• Buddhism advocated non-violence, promoting peaceful coexistence and compassion towards all living beings.
• This principle had a profound impact on the Indian society's ethical values and influenced other religious and social movements.
Influence on Art and Architecture:
• Buddhist art and architecture became prominent in India, reflected in numerous stupas, viharas, and chaityas.
• The Great Stupa at Sanchi and Ajanta Caves are prime examples of ancient Indian Buddhist art and architecture.
Intermingling of Cultures:
• As Buddhism spread across India, it interacted with various regional cultures, leading to a syncretic blend of beliefs and practices.
• Local deities and traditions often merged with Buddhist elements, fostering a rich cultural tapestry.
Impact on Language and Literature:
• Buddhist scriptures and teachings were written in Pali and Sanskrit, contributing to the development of these languages.
• Works of literature like Jataka tales and Buddhist philosophical treatises became an integral part of Indian literary heritage.
Transformation of Social Hierarchies:
• Buddhism challenged the prevailing caste-based social structure by asserting the equality of all individuals.
• It provided an alternative path for individuals of diverse backgrounds to attain spiritual growth and liberation.
Impact on Trade and Connectivity:
• The spread of Buddhism facilitated cultural exchanges and trade between India and neighboring regions, including Central Asia, Southeast Asia, and China.
• Buddhist monastic networks played a vital role in facilitating these connections.
Legacy in Modern India:
• Buddhist principles of compassion, non-violence, and tolerance continue to influence Indian society and its cultural ethos.
• The rich heritage of Indian Buddhism remains an essential part of the country's historical and cultural identity.
Over time, Buddhism declined in India due to various factors, including the revival of Hinduism and foreign invasions. However, in recent times, there has been a resurgence of interest in Buddhism, and pilgrimage to Buddhist sites remains popular.
Impact of Buddhism on the Socio-Cultural Landscape of India:
Spread of Buddhist Monastic Institutions:
• Buddhist monastic institutions, such as monasteries and viharas, flourished across India.
• They served as centers of learning, where not only religious teachings but also various subjects like medicine, astronomy, and philosophy were taught.
• Nalanda and Vikramashila universities are iconic examples of such centers of learning, attracting scholars from different parts of the world.
Emphasis on Non-Violence (Ahimsa):
• Buddhism advocated non-violence, promoting peaceful coexistence and compassion towards all living beings.
• This principle had a profound impact on the Indian society's ethical values and influenced other religious and social movements.
Influence on Art and Architecture:
• Buddhist art and architecture became prominent in India, reflected in numerous stupas, viharas, and chaityas.
• The Great Stupa at Sanchi and Ajanta Caves are prime examples of ancient Indian Buddhist art and architecture.
Intermingling of Cultures:
• As Buddhism spread across India, it interacted with various regional cultures, leading to a syncretic blend of beliefs and practices.
• Local deities and traditions often merged with Buddhist elements, fostering a rich cultural tapestry.
Impact on Language and Literature:
• Buddhist scriptures and teachings were written in Pali and Sanskrit, contributing to the development of these languages.
• Works of literature like Jataka tales and Buddhist philosophical treatises became an integral part of Indian literary heritage.
Transformation of Social Hierarchies:
• Buddhism challenged the prevailing caste-based social structure by asserting the equality of all individuals.
• It provided an alternative path for individuals of diverse backgrounds to attain spiritual growth and liberation.
Impact on Trade and Connectivity:
• The spread of Buddhism facilitated cultural exchanges and trade between India and neighboring regions, including Central Asia, Southeast Asia, and China.
• Buddhist monastic networks played a vital role in facilitating these connections.
Legacy in Modern India:
• Buddhist principles of compassion, non-violence, and tolerance continue to influence Indian society and its cultural ethos.
• The rich heritage of Indian Buddhism remains an essential part of the country's historical and cultural identity.
Over time, Buddhism declined in India due to various factors, including the revival of Hinduism and foreign invasions. However, in recent times, there has been a resurgence of interest in Buddhism, and pilgrimage to Buddhist sites remains popular.
Q.117. Examine the role of Ashoka in promoting Buddhism and its impact on the cultural fabric of the Mauryan Empire.
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Q.117
Pointers:
Role of Ashoka in promoting Buddhism and its impact on the cultural fabric of the Mauryan Empire:
Conversion to Buddhism:
• Ashoka embraced Buddhism after the bloody conquest of Kalinga, which deeply affected him and led to his commitment to non-violence and dharma.
• His conversion set a powerful precedent for future rulers to endorse Buddhism and foster its growth.
Patronage of Buddhist institutions:
• Ashoka actively supported Buddhist monasteries, stupas, and viharas, providing financial and logistical assistance.
• He sent emissaries to spread Buddhism beyond the Indian subcontinent, including to Sri Lanka, which led to the establishment of Buddhism in new regions.
Edicts and Inscriptions:
• Ashoka's edicts, inscribed on pillars and rocks throughout his empire, conveyed Buddhist principles and moral teachings.
• These edicts served as public declarations of his commitment to Buddhist principles, making Buddhism more accessible to his subjects.
Missionaries and Dharma Yatras:
• Ashoka sent Buddhist missionaries, such as Mahinda and Sanghamitra, to different regions to spread the teachings of Buddhism.
• These missions were instrumental in increasing the popularity of Buddhism and attracting followers.
Religious tolerance and coexistence:
• Ashoka's adoption of Buddhism did not lead to the suppression of other religions. Instead, he promoted religious tolerance and coexistence.
• This inclusive policy allowed diverse cultural and religious practices to flourish, creating a harmonious cultural fabric.
Ahimsa (Non-violence) and Social Reforms:
• Ashoka's strong adherence to the principle of non-violence influenced his policies and social reforms.
• He implemented measures to protect wildlife, alleviate the sufferings of prisoners, and promote the welfare of his subjects, reflecting Buddhist ideals.
Art and Architecture:
• The Mauryan art and architecture flourished under Ashoka's patronage, with numerous stupas, pillars, and caves being constructed.
• Famous examples include the Ashoka Pillars, especially the Sarnath Lion Capital, which features Buddhist symbols and teachings.
Dhamma Mahamattas:
• Ashoka appointed Dhamma Mahamattas or officers to promote Dhamma (righteousness) among the people.
• These officials helped in the dissemination of Buddhist principles and the establishment of a moral and ethical society.
Legacy beyond his reign:
• Ashoka's efforts to promote Buddhism had a lasting impact, even after his rule.
• Buddhism continued to thrive and spread in various parts of the Indian subcontinent and beyond for centuries, leaving a profound cultural legacy.
Limitations:
• Geographical Limitations: Despite his efforts, Buddhism's influence was more pronounced in certain regions, and its spread varied across the empire.
• Language Barrier: Inscriptions were primarily in Prakrit, limiting access to Buddhist teachings for those who couldn't understand the language.
• Cultural Diversity: The Mauryan Empire was culturally diverse, and not all regions embraced Buddhism with equal enthusiasm.
• Short-lived Impact: While Ashoka's reign witnessed significant Buddhist growth, its popularity diminished in subsequent centuries.
Pointers:
Role of Ashoka in promoting Buddhism and its impact on the cultural fabric of the Mauryan Empire:
Conversion to Buddhism:
• Ashoka embraced Buddhism after the bloody conquest of Kalinga, which deeply affected him and led to his commitment to non-violence and dharma.
• His conversion set a powerful precedent for future rulers to endorse Buddhism and foster its growth.
Patronage of Buddhist institutions:
• Ashoka actively supported Buddhist monasteries, stupas, and viharas, providing financial and logistical assistance.
• He sent emissaries to spread Buddhism beyond the Indian subcontinent, including to Sri Lanka, which led to the establishment of Buddhism in new regions.
Edicts and Inscriptions:
• Ashoka's edicts, inscribed on pillars and rocks throughout his empire, conveyed Buddhist principles and moral teachings.
• These edicts served as public declarations of his commitment to Buddhist principles, making Buddhism more accessible to his subjects.
Missionaries and Dharma Yatras:
• Ashoka sent Buddhist missionaries, such as Mahinda and Sanghamitra, to different regions to spread the teachings of Buddhism.
• These missions were instrumental in increasing the popularity of Buddhism and attracting followers.
Religious tolerance and coexistence:
• Ashoka's adoption of Buddhism did not lead to the suppression of other religions. Instead, he promoted religious tolerance and coexistence.
• This inclusive policy allowed diverse cultural and religious practices to flourish, creating a harmonious cultural fabric.
Ahimsa (Non-violence) and Social Reforms:
• Ashoka's strong adherence to the principle of non-violence influenced his policies and social reforms.
• He implemented measures to protect wildlife, alleviate the sufferings of prisoners, and promote the welfare of his subjects, reflecting Buddhist ideals.
Art and Architecture:
• The Mauryan art and architecture flourished under Ashoka's patronage, with numerous stupas, pillars, and caves being constructed.
• Famous examples include the Ashoka Pillars, especially the Sarnath Lion Capital, which features Buddhist symbols and teachings.
Dhamma Mahamattas:
• Ashoka appointed Dhamma Mahamattas or officers to promote Dhamma (righteousness) among the people.
• These officials helped in the dissemination of Buddhist principles and the establishment of a moral and ethical society.
Legacy beyond his reign:
• Ashoka's efforts to promote Buddhism had a lasting impact, even after his rule.
• Buddhism continued to thrive and spread in various parts of the Indian subcontinent and beyond for centuries, leaving a profound cultural legacy.
Limitations:
• Geographical Limitations: Despite his efforts, Buddhism's influence was more pronounced in certain regions, and its spread varied across the empire.
• Language Barrier: Inscriptions were primarily in Prakrit, limiting access to Buddhist teachings for those who couldn't understand the language.
• Cultural Diversity: The Mauryan Empire was culturally diverse, and not all regions embraced Buddhism with equal enthusiasm.
• Short-lived Impact: While Ashoka's reign witnessed significant Buddhist growth, its popularity diminished in subsequent centuries.
Q118. How does Sangam literature offer insights into the economic and socio-cultural aspects of life during its time?
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#modern #MainsAnswerWriting
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Q118.
Pointers:
Sangam literature portrays a vivid account of the contemporary economic life as under:
Agriculture:
• Major crops included rice, sugarcane, spices like pepper, ginger, turmeric, cinnamon etc.
• Depending upon the nature of land other activities like cattle rearing, hunting, gathering, fishing etc. were also practiced.
Industry:
• Weaving and spinning industries flourished during the Sangam era.
• Uraiyur and Madurai were the centres for cotton fabrics.
• Textile industries got a fillip due to rise in demand in the foreign lands. E.g., Roman coins found in Tamil Nadu.
• Ship building industry flourished.
Handicraft: metal works and carpentry, making of ornaments using beads, stones and ivory etc., was prominent during the Sangam age. Women formed a significant part of the labor force.
Trade:
• Trade, both internal and external, flourished during the Sangam era.
• Cotton fabrics, spices, ivory products, pearls and precious stones etc., were principal items of export.
• Horses, gold and sweet wine were primarily formed the items of import.
• Barter system was the prime mode of transaction for the internal trade.
• Tondi, Musiri, Korkai, Arikkamedu, Marakkanam etc., were the main ports, used for external maritime trade with the Roman empire.
The Sangam literature portrays a vivid account of the contemporary socio-cultural life as under:
Social hierarchy:
• Tolakapiyyam categorizes society in Sangam age into Anthanar (priests), Arasar (rulers), Vanigar (merchants), and Vellalas (agriculturists).
• Social inequalities was there as rich lived in brick houses with high living standards, while the poor resided in huts with minimal clothing.
Tolakappiyam mentions a five-fold division in the landed society viz:
• Kurinji (Hilly tracks) for hunting and honey collection and associated chief deity was Murugun.
• Mullai (Pastoral) with chief occupation of cattle rearing and dairy product and the chief deity was Mayun (Vishnu).
• Marudam (Agricultural): Agricultural was chief occupation and the associated deity was Indra.
• Neydal (Coastal): Fishing and salt manufacturing was the chief occupation and Varun was the associated chief deity.
• Palai (Desert): It was mainly used for robbery and the chief deity was Korravai.
Status of women in society:
• While women did not have equal status to men, they were generally treated with respect and consideration in the society.
• Chastity was highly valued as a virtue for women, exemplified by Kannagi, the protagonist of Silappadikaram (by Ilango Adigal).
• Women poets such as Avvaiyar, Nachchellaiyar, and Kakkaipadiniyar made significant contributions to Tamil literature.
• Love marriages were prevalent, and women had the agency to choose their partners.
• The practice of Sati was observed in certain segments of the upper society.
Religious practices:
• The people of Sangam era held strong religious beliefs, with Murugan being the primary deity.
• Worship of Indra, Vishnu, and Shiva was also prevalent among the population.
• The Sangam society also believed in the existence of sacred or mystical forces known as Ananku.
• Additionally, they practiced the worship of Hero-Stones (Virakal) or Nadu Kal during the Sangam period.
#modern #MainsAnswerWriting
@nikhilhistoryculture
Pointers:
Sangam literature portrays a vivid account of the contemporary economic life as under:
Agriculture:
• Major crops included rice, sugarcane, spices like pepper, ginger, turmeric, cinnamon etc.
• Depending upon the nature of land other activities like cattle rearing, hunting, gathering, fishing etc. were also practiced.
Industry:
• Weaving and spinning industries flourished during the Sangam era.
• Uraiyur and Madurai were the centres for cotton fabrics.
• Textile industries got a fillip due to rise in demand in the foreign lands. E.g., Roman coins found in Tamil Nadu.
• Ship building industry flourished.
Handicraft: metal works and carpentry, making of ornaments using beads, stones and ivory etc., was prominent during the Sangam age. Women formed a significant part of the labor force.
Trade:
• Trade, both internal and external, flourished during the Sangam era.
• Cotton fabrics, spices, ivory products, pearls and precious stones etc., were principal items of export.
• Horses, gold and sweet wine were primarily formed the items of import.
• Barter system was the prime mode of transaction for the internal trade.
• Tondi, Musiri, Korkai, Arikkamedu, Marakkanam etc., were the main ports, used for external maritime trade with the Roman empire.
The Sangam literature portrays a vivid account of the contemporary socio-cultural life as under:
Social hierarchy:
• Tolakapiyyam categorizes society in Sangam age into Anthanar (priests), Arasar (rulers), Vanigar (merchants), and Vellalas (agriculturists).
• Social inequalities was there as rich lived in brick houses with high living standards, while the poor resided in huts with minimal clothing.
Tolakappiyam mentions a five-fold division in the landed society viz:
• Kurinji (Hilly tracks) for hunting and honey collection and associated chief deity was Murugun.
• Mullai (Pastoral) with chief occupation of cattle rearing and dairy product and the chief deity was Mayun (Vishnu).
• Marudam (Agricultural): Agricultural was chief occupation and the associated deity was Indra.
• Neydal (Coastal): Fishing and salt manufacturing was the chief occupation and Varun was the associated chief deity.
• Palai (Desert): It was mainly used for robbery and the chief deity was Korravai.
Status of women in society:
• While women did not have equal status to men, they were generally treated with respect and consideration in the society.
• Chastity was highly valued as a virtue for women, exemplified by Kannagi, the protagonist of Silappadikaram (by Ilango Adigal).
• Women poets such as Avvaiyar, Nachchellaiyar, and Kakkaipadiniyar made significant contributions to Tamil literature.
• Love marriages were prevalent, and women had the agency to choose their partners.
• The practice of Sati was observed in certain segments of the upper society.
Religious practices:
• The people of Sangam era held strong religious beliefs, with Murugan being the primary deity.
• Worship of Indra, Vishnu, and Shiva was also prevalent among the population.
• The Sangam society also believed in the existence of sacred or mystical forces known as Ananku.
• Additionally, they practiced the worship of Hero-Stones (Virakal) or Nadu Kal during the Sangam period.
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@nikhilhistoryculture
Q.119. Discuss the evolution and key characteristics of stupa architecture in India, highlighting the major developments and regional variations across different periods.
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@nikhilhistoryculture
#modern #MainsAnswerWriting
@nikhilhistoryculture
Q.119
Pointers:
Evolution of Stupa architecture in India:
• A stupa (literally “heap” or “pile”) is a reliquary, a shrine containing the remains of a holy or sainted person and/or artifacts (relics) associated with them, originating in India prior to the 5th century BCE as tombs of holy men and evolving afterwards into sacred sites dedicated to the Buddha (l. c. 563 – c. 483 BCE).
• Later, stupas were also raised to honor Buddhist arhats (saints), bodhisattvas (enlightened ones), other saintly figures, or local deities.
• The term stupa has been referred to in Rig Veda but not in the context as we know it. The term then referred to the fire coming out of the sacrificial altar.
• Initially stupas were Buddha’s relic places. Then it got extended to his followers as well and gradually stupa itself became an object of worship.
• Some stupas, such as the Great Stupa at Sanchi is large, ornate structures while others are more modest.
• The construction of stupas, on a large scale and associated with Buddhism, began throughout India during the reign of Ashoka the Great (268-232 BCE) of the Mauryan Empire (322-185 BCE) after his conversion to Buddhism.
• Mauryas arrived too late for a share of the relic and were given the wood ashes from the cremation pyre, and they too built a Stupa in their city of Pipphalavana.
• They were built by the donations of king specially of Satavahanas; guilds such as ivory workers; men and women, bhikkhus and bhikkhunis.
• After Ashoka none of the Mauryan ruler showed any interest in propagating Buddhism. Then the Sungas gave a new dimension to the Stupa architecture. During Sunga and Ikshvakus period enlargement and additions were made in the existing Stupas of Sanchi, Bharhut and Amravati.
Characteristics of stupa architecture:
• The stupa consists of a square platform knows as medhi.
• On medhi there is a hemispherical structure which encloses a casket.
• The medhi is surrounded by vedika(boundary wall).
• Between the medhi and the vedika was pradakshina path or the circum-ambulatory.
• On the stupa there was harmika followed by one or more chatris which signified ‘axis mundi’ or axis of the world.
Regional Variations:
North India:
• Presence of torana dwara
• Circular stupa
• No decorations on hemispheres
• Buddha depicted by symbols
South India:
• No torana dwara
• Non circular stupa
• Decorations present on hemisphere
• Buddha depicted by symbols as well as in anthropomorphic forms
Stupa Architecture during different time period:
• During the early phase of Buddhism, Buddha is depicted symbolically through footprints, stupas, lotus throne, chakra, etc.
• This indicates either simple worship, or paying respect, or at times depicts historicization of life events.
• Gradually narrative became a part of the Buddhisttradition.
• Thus events from the life of the Buddha, the Jataka stories, were depicted on the railings and toranas of the stupas.
• Mainly synoptic narrative, continuous narrative and episodic narrative are used in the pictorial tradition.
• While events from the life of the Buddha became an important theme in all the Buddhist monuments, the Jataka stories also became equally important for sculptural decorations.
• The main events associated with the Buddha’s life which were frequently depicted were events related to the birth, renunciation, enlightenment, dhammachakrapravartana, and mahaparinibbana (death).
• Among the Jataka stories that are frequently depicted are Chhadanta Jataka, Vidurpundita Jataka, Ruru Jataka, Sibi Jataka, Vessantara Jataka and Shama Jataka.
• The original brick Stupa built during Ashoka’s time was at first enclosed by wooden fence and later replaced by the massive stone balustrade.
#modern #MainsAnswerWriting
@nikhilhistoryculture
Pointers:
Evolution of Stupa architecture in India:
• A stupa (literally “heap” or “pile”) is a reliquary, a shrine containing the remains of a holy or sainted person and/or artifacts (relics) associated with them, originating in India prior to the 5th century BCE as tombs of holy men and evolving afterwards into sacred sites dedicated to the Buddha (l. c. 563 – c. 483 BCE).
• Later, stupas were also raised to honor Buddhist arhats (saints), bodhisattvas (enlightened ones), other saintly figures, or local deities.
• The term stupa has been referred to in Rig Veda but not in the context as we know it. The term then referred to the fire coming out of the sacrificial altar.
• Initially stupas were Buddha’s relic places. Then it got extended to his followers as well and gradually stupa itself became an object of worship.
• Some stupas, such as the Great Stupa at Sanchi is large, ornate structures while others are more modest.
• The construction of stupas, on a large scale and associated with Buddhism, began throughout India during the reign of Ashoka the Great (268-232 BCE) of the Mauryan Empire (322-185 BCE) after his conversion to Buddhism.
• Mauryas arrived too late for a share of the relic and were given the wood ashes from the cremation pyre, and they too built a Stupa in their city of Pipphalavana.
• They were built by the donations of king specially of Satavahanas; guilds such as ivory workers; men and women, bhikkhus and bhikkhunis.
• After Ashoka none of the Mauryan ruler showed any interest in propagating Buddhism. Then the Sungas gave a new dimension to the Stupa architecture. During Sunga and Ikshvakus period enlargement and additions were made in the existing Stupas of Sanchi, Bharhut and Amravati.
Characteristics of stupa architecture:
• The stupa consists of a square platform knows as medhi.
• On medhi there is a hemispherical structure which encloses a casket.
• The medhi is surrounded by vedika(boundary wall).
• Between the medhi and the vedika was pradakshina path or the circum-ambulatory.
• On the stupa there was harmika followed by one or more chatris which signified ‘axis mundi’ or axis of the world.
Regional Variations:
North India:
• Presence of torana dwara
• Circular stupa
• No decorations on hemispheres
• Buddha depicted by symbols
South India:
• No torana dwara
• Non circular stupa
• Decorations present on hemisphere
• Buddha depicted by symbols as well as in anthropomorphic forms
Stupa Architecture during different time period:
• During the early phase of Buddhism, Buddha is depicted symbolically through footprints, stupas, lotus throne, chakra, etc.
• This indicates either simple worship, or paying respect, or at times depicts historicization of life events.
• Gradually narrative became a part of the Buddhisttradition.
• Thus events from the life of the Buddha, the Jataka stories, were depicted on the railings and toranas of the stupas.
• Mainly synoptic narrative, continuous narrative and episodic narrative are used in the pictorial tradition.
• While events from the life of the Buddha became an important theme in all the Buddhist monuments, the Jataka stories also became equally important for sculptural decorations.
• The main events associated with the Buddha’s life which were frequently depicted were events related to the birth, renunciation, enlightenment, dhammachakrapravartana, and mahaparinibbana (death).
• Among the Jataka stories that are frequently depicted are Chhadanta Jataka, Vidurpundita Jataka, Ruru Jataka, Sibi Jataka, Vessantara Jataka and Shama Jataka.
• The original brick Stupa built during Ashoka’s time was at first enclosed by wooden fence and later replaced by the massive stone balustrade.
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Q120. Mathura school and Gandhara school were both prominent centers of art and sculptures. However, they differ from each other in their artistic styles and representations. Discuss.
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Q.120.
Pointers:
Difference between Mathura and Gandhara school of art
• The Gandhara school of art predominantly thrived in regions of Afghanistan and present-day North-west India, whereas the Mathura school of art developed and flourished in Mathura and areas of Uttar Pradesh.
• The Gandhara school of art witnessed its prime from the 1st century BC to the 5th century AD, while the Mathura school of art originated in the 1st century BC and continued to flourish until the 12th century AD.
• Gandhara school of art drew influence from Greek and possibly Macedonian artistic traditions, whereas the Mathura school of art remained purely indigenous with no external influence.
• The Gandhara school of art primarily incorporated Buddhist themes, whereas the Mathura school of art drew inspiration from Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism.
• Gandhara school of art employed bluish-grey and grey sandstone, whereas the Mathura school of art utilized spotted red sandstone.
• The Halo around the head of Buddha was generally left undecorated in Gandhara school of art, while it was frequently adorned with decorative elements in Mathura school of art.
• The Gandhara Buddha sculptures often portrayed a sense of serenity and calmness, while Mathura Buddha sculptures depicted a delighted mood, seated in Padmasana, with the right hand in Abhayamudra and the left hand on the left thigh, emphasizing masculinity.
#modern #MainsAnswerWriting
@nikhilhistoryculture
Pointers:
Difference between Mathura and Gandhara school of art
• The Gandhara school of art predominantly thrived in regions of Afghanistan and present-day North-west India, whereas the Mathura school of art developed and flourished in Mathura and areas of Uttar Pradesh.
• The Gandhara school of art witnessed its prime from the 1st century BC to the 5th century AD, while the Mathura school of art originated in the 1st century BC and continued to flourish until the 12th century AD.
• Gandhara school of art drew influence from Greek and possibly Macedonian artistic traditions, whereas the Mathura school of art remained purely indigenous with no external influence.
• The Gandhara school of art primarily incorporated Buddhist themes, whereas the Mathura school of art drew inspiration from Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism.
• Gandhara school of art employed bluish-grey and grey sandstone, whereas the Mathura school of art utilized spotted red sandstone.
• The Halo around the head of Buddha was generally left undecorated in Gandhara school of art, while it was frequently adorned with decorative elements in Mathura school of art.
• The Gandhara Buddha sculptures often portrayed a sense of serenity and calmness, while Mathura Buddha sculptures depicted a delighted mood, seated in Padmasana, with the right hand in Abhayamudra and the left hand on the left thigh, emphasizing masculinity.
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@nikhilhistoryculture
Q121.Analyze the significant contributions and literary achievements of Sanskrit literature during the Gupta Empire.
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Q121
Pointers:
The Gupta emperors were great patrons of art and literature, leading to a flourishing of Sanskrit literature during their reign.
• Sanskrit Poetics: Poetics/poetry theories emerged during the Gupta dynasty’s golden period. Famous literature on poetics includes Dandin’s ‘Kavyadarsha,’ Varahamihira’s Brihatsamhita, and Vamaha’s ‘Kavyalankara.’ The ‘amarakosa’ of Amarsimha was an important Gupta lexicon. Other renowned dictionary authors at the time included Dhanwantari, Vararuchi, Katyayana, and Vachaspati.
• Kalidasa's Works: Kalidasa, one of the most celebrated Sanskrit poets, lived during the Gupta Empire. He composed several masterpieces, including "Abhijnanasakuntalam" (The Recognition of Shakuntala), "Raghuvamsha," and "Meghaduta" (The Cloud Messenger).
• Plays and Drama: Sanskrit drama reached its zenith during the Gupta period. Bhasa, another notable playwright, wrote compelling plays like "Pratijna Yaugandharayana" and "Swapnavasavadatta."
• Epics: The Gupta era witnessed the composition of important Sanskrit epics. One notable example is the "Kumarasambhava" by Kalidasa, which narrates the story of the birth of Lord Kumara (Skanda or Kartikeya).
• Puranas: Several Puranic texts were compiled or expanded upon during the Gupta Empire. These Puranas, such as the Vishnu Purana and Bhagavata Purana, played a vital role in preserving mythology, history, and religious teachings.
• Gupta Script: The Gupta script, also known as Brahmi script, was widely used during this period. It became the standard script for writing Sanskrit texts, inscriptions, and manuscripts.
• Mathematics and Astronomy Texts: Sanskrit literature during the Gupta Empire also included significant contributions in the fields of mathematics and astronomy. Aryabhata's "Aryabhatiya" and Varahamihira's "Pancasiddhantika" are notable examples of such works.
• Philosophical Treatises: Various philosophical and political treatises were written throughout the Gupta period. “Nitisara,” by Kamandaka, was a brilliant work that dealt with state management and a king’s duty to his subjects. The ‘Kamasutra’ by Vatsyayana was a wonderful work about the art of love and the complexities of city life. During the Gupta period, Narada, Yajnyavakya, Manu, and others created Smriti writings, which were a commentary on the administration and social regulations of the time.
#modern #MainsAnswerWriting
@nikhilhistoryculture
Pointers:
The Gupta emperors were great patrons of art and literature, leading to a flourishing of Sanskrit literature during their reign.
• Sanskrit Poetics: Poetics/poetry theories emerged during the Gupta dynasty’s golden period. Famous literature on poetics includes Dandin’s ‘Kavyadarsha,’ Varahamihira’s Brihatsamhita, and Vamaha’s ‘Kavyalankara.’ The ‘amarakosa’ of Amarsimha was an important Gupta lexicon. Other renowned dictionary authors at the time included Dhanwantari, Vararuchi, Katyayana, and Vachaspati.
• Kalidasa's Works: Kalidasa, one of the most celebrated Sanskrit poets, lived during the Gupta Empire. He composed several masterpieces, including "Abhijnanasakuntalam" (The Recognition of Shakuntala), "Raghuvamsha," and "Meghaduta" (The Cloud Messenger).
• Plays and Drama: Sanskrit drama reached its zenith during the Gupta period. Bhasa, another notable playwright, wrote compelling plays like "Pratijna Yaugandharayana" and "Swapnavasavadatta."
• Epics: The Gupta era witnessed the composition of important Sanskrit epics. One notable example is the "Kumarasambhava" by Kalidasa, which narrates the story of the birth of Lord Kumara (Skanda or Kartikeya).
• Puranas: Several Puranic texts were compiled or expanded upon during the Gupta Empire. These Puranas, such as the Vishnu Purana and Bhagavata Purana, played a vital role in preserving mythology, history, and religious teachings.
• Gupta Script: The Gupta script, also known as Brahmi script, was widely used during this period. It became the standard script for writing Sanskrit texts, inscriptions, and manuscripts.
• Mathematics and Astronomy Texts: Sanskrit literature during the Gupta Empire also included significant contributions in the fields of mathematics and astronomy. Aryabhata's "Aryabhatiya" and Varahamihira's "Pancasiddhantika" are notable examples of such works.
• Philosophical Treatises: Various philosophical and political treatises were written throughout the Gupta period. “Nitisara,” by Kamandaka, was a brilliant work that dealt with state management and a king’s duty to his subjects. The ‘Kamasutra’ by Vatsyayana was a wonderful work about the art of love and the complexities of city life. During the Gupta period, Narada, Yajnyavakya, Manu, and others created Smriti writings, which were a commentary on the administration and social regulations of the time.
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Q.122. Discuss the significant features and contributions of Gupta architecture to India's cultural heritage.
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Q122.
Pointers:
Significant Features and Contributions of Gupta Architecture to India's Cultural Heritage:
• Temple Architecture: Gupta architecture saw the development of the Nagara style of temple architecture, characterized by tall spires (shikhara) and square sanctums. The Dashavatara Temple at Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh, showcases the early Nagara style with a simple yet elegant structure.
• Sculptures: Gupta sculptures are renowned for their naturalism, elegance, and idealism. They depicted gods, goddesses, and human figures with exceptional grace and beauty. The statue of Buddha from Sarnath showcases the exquisite artistry and mastery of the Gupta sculptors.
• Buddhist Architecture: Gupta period witnessed the construction of numerous Buddhist monasteries and stupas. The stupas were adorned with elaborate gateways (toranas) featuring intricate carvings.The Great Stupa at Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh, is an iconic representation of Gupta Buddhist architecture, featuring intricately carved toranas.
• Structural Innovations: Gupta architects introduced arched entrances and vaulted chambers, adding to the structural stability and aesthetic appeal of buildings. The Cave Temples of Ajanta feature impressive vaulted ceilings and arched doorways, showcasing Gupta innovation in cave architecture.
• Rock-Cut Architecture: The Gupta period saw the continuation and refinement of rock-cut architecture, with elaborate cave temples dedicated to various deities. The Cave 16 of Ellora, known as the Kailash Temple, is a remarkable rock-cut temple complex, showcasing the Gupta influence on cave architecture.
• Patronage of the Arts: The Gupta rulers were great patrons of art and architecture, encouraging artists, architects, and scholars to flourish during their reign. The Gupta king Chandragupta II, known as Vikramaditya, was a renowned patron of the arts, attracting scholars like Kalidasa to his court.
• Mathematics and Geometry in Architecture: Gupta architects incorporated principles of mathematics and geometry in the construction of temples and monuments, ensuring structural stability and aesthetic harmony. The Sun Temple at Modhera, Gujarat, showcases the use of mathematical precision in its design and alignment.
• Influence on Subsequent Architectural Styles: Architecture laid the foundation for future architectural styles in India, influencing later periods like the Chalukya, Rashtrakuta, and Chola dynasties. The Khajuraho temples, built during the Chandela dynasty, show Gupta architectural elements, indicating the continuation of Gupta traditions.
#modern #MainsAnswerWriting
@nikhilhistoryculture
Pointers:
Significant Features and Contributions of Gupta Architecture to India's Cultural Heritage:
• Temple Architecture: Gupta architecture saw the development of the Nagara style of temple architecture, characterized by tall spires (shikhara) and square sanctums. The Dashavatara Temple at Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh, showcases the early Nagara style with a simple yet elegant structure.
• Sculptures: Gupta sculptures are renowned for their naturalism, elegance, and idealism. They depicted gods, goddesses, and human figures with exceptional grace and beauty. The statue of Buddha from Sarnath showcases the exquisite artistry and mastery of the Gupta sculptors.
• Buddhist Architecture: Gupta period witnessed the construction of numerous Buddhist monasteries and stupas. The stupas were adorned with elaborate gateways (toranas) featuring intricate carvings.The Great Stupa at Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh, is an iconic representation of Gupta Buddhist architecture, featuring intricately carved toranas.
• Structural Innovations: Gupta architects introduced arched entrances and vaulted chambers, adding to the structural stability and aesthetic appeal of buildings. The Cave Temples of Ajanta feature impressive vaulted ceilings and arched doorways, showcasing Gupta innovation in cave architecture.
• Rock-Cut Architecture: The Gupta period saw the continuation and refinement of rock-cut architecture, with elaborate cave temples dedicated to various deities. The Cave 16 of Ellora, known as the Kailash Temple, is a remarkable rock-cut temple complex, showcasing the Gupta influence on cave architecture.
• Patronage of the Arts: The Gupta rulers were great patrons of art and architecture, encouraging artists, architects, and scholars to flourish during their reign. The Gupta king Chandragupta II, known as Vikramaditya, was a renowned patron of the arts, attracting scholars like Kalidasa to his court.
• Mathematics and Geometry in Architecture: Gupta architects incorporated principles of mathematics and geometry in the construction of temples and monuments, ensuring structural stability and aesthetic harmony. The Sun Temple at Modhera, Gujarat, showcases the use of mathematical precision in its design and alignment.
• Influence on Subsequent Architectural Styles: Architecture laid the foundation for future architectural styles in India, influencing later periods like the Chalukya, Rashtrakuta, and Chola dynasties. The Khajuraho temples, built during the Chandela dynasty, show Gupta architectural elements, indicating the continuation of Gupta traditions.
#modern #MainsAnswerWriting
@nikhilhistoryculture
Just watched the movie.
The tension of the world war, and the tension between global scientific community on one hand and nation-state on the other: both are shown very effectively.
However, this movie is less about the atom bomb and more about the ethics of deadly technology that the scientists deal with... it is also about emotional coping of a sensitive person who created a monster due to situational needs... moreover, it is also about ugly politics of extreme nationalism, which devours its own heroes.
These three things form a the major themes while atom bomb recedes into a backdrop.
IMAX camera is used not only to deliver the fantastic rendition of Trinity test which shows the inside of the explosion, but also to give close-ups of Oppenheimer's face, which shows us inside of his mind. It is a must watch.
(PS: We don't bother much about history of science in India. We should take it more seriously than we do now.)
#worldhistory #worldwar #coldwar #sciencetech #movie
The tension of the world war, and the tension between global scientific community on one hand and nation-state on the other: both are shown very effectively.
However, this movie is less about the atom bomb and more about the ethics of deadly technology that the scientists deal with... it is also about emotional coping of a sensitive person who created a monster due to situational needs... moreover, it is also about ugly politics of extreme nationalism, which devours its own heroes.
These three things form a the major themes while atom bomb recedes into a backdrop.
IMAX camera is used not only to deliver the fantastic rendition of Trinity test which shows the inside of the explosion, but also to give close-ups of Oppenheimer's face, which shows us inside of his mind. It is a must watch.
(PS: We don't bother much about history of science in India. We should take it more seriously than we do now.)
#worldhistory #worldwar #coldwar #sciencetech #movie
Q123. Discuss the key features and characteristics of the Bhakti movement in South India, highlighting the major Bhakti saints, their teachings, and their preferred mode of expression.
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@nikhilhistoryculture
#modern #MainsAnswerWriting
@nikhilhistoryculture
A point comes in everyone's preparation cycle, where one feels that the real challenge is not the syllabus but how to manage yourself - your mind, thoughts and emotions.
Join this channel for effective strategies of self-regulation. It will definitely provide some practical insights and suggestions.
https://www.tg-me.com/rebtwithsonali
Join this channel for effective strategies of self-regulation. It will definitely provide some practical insights and suggestions.
https://www.tg-me.com/rebtwithsonali
Q123.
Pointer:
Key Features and Characteristics of the Bhakti Movement in South India:
• Devotion to Personal Gods: The Bhakti movement in South India was characterized by intense devotion and love for personal deities. Bhakti saints focused on building a direct and personal relationship with the divine, transcending traditional ritualistic practices. The 8th-century philosopher-saint Adi Shankaracharya's teachings emphasized devotion to Lord Shiva as the ultimate reality and encouraged followers to surrender to Shiva with unwavering faith.
• Inclusivity and Rejecting Caste Barriers: Bhakti saints challenged the rigid caste system prevalent in medieval society, advocating for universal love and equality. They welcomed people from all castes and backgrounds into their fold. Basavanna, a 12th-century social reformer and Bhakti saint, promoted the idea of "Anubhava Mantapa," an inclusive gathering that allowed people from all castes to participate in spiritual discussions and devotional activities.
• Regional Vernaculars: Bhakti saints chose regional languages instead of Sanskrit to communicate their ideas to the common people. This shift democratized access to spirituality and enabled the spread of devotional literature. Nayanars in Tamil Nadu composed devotional hymns in Tamil, making religious texts more accessible and relevant to the local population.
• Emphasis on Love and Surrender: Bhakti saints preached the path of love and surrender as the means to attain divine grace. They believed that selfless devotion and complete surrender to the divine would lead to liberation. Andal, a 9th-century Tamil poet-saint, expressed her love and devotion to Lord Vishnu through her emotionally charged hymns, such as "Thiruppavai" and "Nachiar Tirumozhi."
• Critique of Rituals and Formalism: Bhakti saints criticized the excessive emphasis on rituals and external forms of worship, calling for a sincere and heartfelt connection with the divine. The Alvars in South India challenged ritualistic practices and promoted the idea of "Prapatti" (self-surrender) as the means of attaining moksha (liberation).
• Integration of Music and Dance: Bhakti saints popularized devotional music and dance as a means to express their love and devotion to the divine. Music became an integral part of the Bhakti movement in South India. Purandaradasa, a 16th-century Bhakti saint from Karnataka, composed numerous devotional songs (Devaranamas) in Kannada that are still sung and revered in South Indian classical music traditions.
• Challenging Religious Orthodoxy: The Bhakti movement questioned the authority of Brahminical orthodoxy and advocated a direct and personal approach to spirituality, accessible to all, regardless of social status.
• Role of Women Saints: The Bhakti movement in South India provided a platform for women to actively participate in spiritual and devotional activities, challenging patriarchal norms prevalent at the time. Akka Mahadevi, a 12th-century female Bhakti poet-saint, composed "Vachanas" in Kannada, expressing her devotion to Lord Shiva and advocating for spiritual independence for women.
#modern #MainsAnswerWriting
@nikhilhistoryculture
Pointer:
Key Features and Characteristics of the Bhakti Movement in South India:
• Devotion to Personal Gods: The Bhakti movement in South India was characterized by intense devotion and love for personal deities. Bhakti saints focused on building a direct and personal relationship with the divine, transcending traditional ritualistic practices. The 8th-century philosopher-saint Adi Shankaracharya's teachings emphasized devotion to Lord Shiva as the ultimate reality and encouraged followers to surrender to Shiva with unwavering faith.
• Inclusivity and Rejecting Caste Barriers: Bhakti saints challenged the rigid caste system prevalent in medieval society, advocating for universal love and equality. They welcomed people from all castes and backgrounds into their fold. Basavanna, a 12th-century social reformer and Bhakti saint, promoted the idea of "Anubhava Mantapa," an inclusive gathering that allowed people from all castes to participate in spiritual discussions and devotional activities.
• Regional Vernaculars: Bhakti saints chose regional languages instead of Sanskrit to communicate their ideas to the common people. This shift democratized access to spirituality and enabled the spread of devotional literature. Nayanars in Tamil Nadu composed devotional hymns in Tamil, making religious texts more accessible and relevant to the local population.
• Emphasis on Love and Surrender: Bhakti saints preached the path of love and surrender as the means to attain divine grace. They believed that selfless devotion and complete surrender to the divine would lead to liberation. Andal, a 9th-century Tamil poet-saint, expressed her love and devotion to Lord Vishnu through her emotionally charged hymns, such as "Thiruppavai" and "Nachiar Tirumozhi."
• Critique of Rituals and Formalism: Bhakti saints criticized the excessive emphasis on rituals and external forms of worship, calling for a sincere and heartfelt connection with the divine. The Alvars in South India challenged ritualistic practices and promoted the idea of "Prapatti" (self-surrender) as the means of attaining moksha (liberation).
• Integration of Music and Dance: Bhakti saints popularized devotional music and dance as a means to express their love and devotion to the divine. Music became an integral part of the Bhakti movement in South India. Purandaradasa, a 16th-century Bhakti saint from Karnataka, composed numerous devotional songs (Devaranamas) in Kannada that are still sung and revered in South Indian classical music traditions.
• Challenging Religious Orthodoxy: The Bhakti movement questioned the authority of Brahminical orthodoxy and advocated a direct and personal approach to spirituality, accessible to all, regardless of social status.
• Role of Women Saints: The Bhakti movement in South India provided a platform for women to actively participate in spiritual and devotional activities, challenging patriarchal norms prevalent at the time. Akka Mahadevi, a 12th-century female Bhakti poet-saint, composed "Vachanas" in Kannada, expressing her devotion to Lord Shiva and advocating for spiritual independence for women.
#modern #MainsAnswerWriting
@nikhilhistoryculture